2012年7月15日星期日

刘自立:评儒家宪政说

行为艺术家周永阳的作品:孔子拉屎 


《纽约时报》中文网刊出一片奇文(蒋庆 贝淡宁《中国的儒家宪政》/见附)。说是中国该行儒家宪政而不该行(西方——他们说法)民主。此理荒诞不经。出自该大报媒,实有反驳之必要。此文开头就说,“西方人普遍认为中国应该更加民主,但是,用民主和专制这样的术语作为辩论的框架掩盖了其他更好的可能性。中国的政治未来更可能由儒家悠久的“王道”来决定而不是被西方式多党选举来决定。”这是误读王道之解。内圣外王,是一个历史载体之说。其基本涵义就是,儒家之说,不由皇权载盛,势必不复存在(见陈寅恪语)。换言之,中国皇权倾覆,儒家覆巢无卵,该是历史和现实定界。如果要说文化儒家而非政治儒家,则可以勉强支撑下去而同时对此进行传统坚持和传统改革。这是理路,也是现实。孙文革命以后,儒家和基督教成为他的双向文化督导,早已人尽皆知——而老蒋,一边施行训政,一边自我读经,也是人生之证——但是,他们的良知良行就在于他们读懂了西方,读懂了中国。

一是,中国千年以来,政治制衡犹存,但是,极端脆弱。烦几种制衡之中,君相制衡和政教制衡尤其关键。但是,正是由于这种制衡比较西方民主来得脆弱,往往呈现人治之良莠兼之。其中,道德至上论,在明君贤臣当道时期卓有成效;但是,到了秦皇、隋帝等遂变成一塌糊涂。此证这种人治的两分法,两效果。

二是,西方民主不是创造和假设。本来,就是其文明的一种形态。这种形态,堪比中国古代之政治制度也是与生具来一样,只是二者相比之,优劣立现。西方政治演变,是随着各种政体的轮流出现而呈“追逐自由之状态”(见基佐言论)——而中国之一种皇权之下,别无他政他史之证,不能不说是一种自由懈怠和王政荒废。但是,二者之历史根据却是不可抹煞的。

三,于是政治比较学由此发轫。西方民主带来的共和和宪政,本来就是一币两面;而中国皇权制度之法度,本身并不具备各个阶级之间的互动和轮替——中国游民阶级的流动方向,只能是造反和招安(知识分子/科举制度,绝无独立可言)——在官民之间,虽然,存在着一种皇帝轮流做,今天到我家的机会主义,但是,他们或上到极端高位,或跌至极端底层,有着一种无可奈何的选择——而西方平民,贵族,皇室之间,并无互相顶替而更改位置之虞——他们从希腊民主到罗马共和,其特点,就是保存着各个高低杂糅之各个阶级之间的间性互存——而这一点,正是共和-宪政建立和施行的关键——更不要说共和之财产共享(共和元义:commonwealth)。

四,如果没有共和,没有各个阶级反对阶级优势,反对阶级立法,反对阶级政府的阶级融合(包含阶级斗争——甚至暴民起义(含罗马暴民和英法暴民——孟德斯鸠肯定之为制衡利器),宪政之前提就无着落。就像中国有法制,无法治,这句老话所讲,中国王政之中内涵的巨大缺失,就是并无共和与阶级因子,呈现社会平面结构而被预设为结构之解——这样,儒家宪政的共和基础本来就几乎根本不于存在,何谈无共和之宪章、宪政呢?(比如,英国历史和英国革命,就是施行共和,宪政和民主的可靠范式。他们的“王政”,首先在于施行了国王听从议会的高端原则——这个高端原则给了立法者一种西方传统法治概念且由共和行政与执法机构,实行之——一旦这个议会停止运作或王废宪权,革命随之发动——而克伦威尔同样因为制止议会运作而被废除。)

五,该文说了一个笑话。就是三院统治/制,天、地、人治(“按照对儒家经典的评论---公羊传的说法,政治权力可以通过三个来源来辩护:天的合法性(超越神圣的合法性)、地的合法性(历史和文化的智慧)和人的合法性(人心民意的政治服从)。在古代,早期中国君主施行过王道。但是历史情境的变化要求统治形式也必须随之改变。今天,民众的意愿必须通过过去所没有的机构形式体现出来,虽然它应该由反映其他两种合法性的机构性安排来限制和平衡。”(同上) 

——这个笑话令人捧腹之因,在于他们不知道政教分离原则之常识。儒之天,又不是耶稣,上帝之天,该是另外一个尺度——可见很多文本对此分析有备,不可不说。儒家形成本身就是人文-宗教之间背对背的一次冒险。周礼以降,祭祀式微。中国宗教载体与西方大相径庭之处,就在于西方民主,耶稣,两路而行——而中国,几乎就是选择了单一路径,政治路径,儒家路径和皇权路径——中国无罗马,也无耶路撒冷和麦加——这是一种儒代上帝之天之说。此一事实和史实的形成,或者讲严重偏离宗教倾向,使得中国文化唯视人文,轻举宗教。

六,那么,宪政可无宗教制衡而独具政治路径乎?这是一个难点。从源头而论,西方政教分离原则本身的一个关键词,就是分而犹存。这是非常明确的事实。尽管希腊民主,希腊先贤民主实践远远早于耶稣纪元,但是,希腊-基督之双向并存,成就西方文化之弹性和内涵。不能设想西方无基督而有民主——也无法设想,西方有民主而无宗教。只是,其中分离之重要性在于,恺撒,上帝,各司其职,绝无消灭一方之理据。因为,任何立法道德的皈依,实际上源于先验道德和上帝命律(康德)——而没有道德的立法和没有立法的道德,同样不可久存。

七,这样,西方文化中绝无中国式宗教为儒,政治亦为儒之政教一锅烩主义。(参见其文,“在现代中国,王道应该通过三院制国会来实施:代表天的神圣合法性的通儒院,代表历史文化合法性的国体院和代表民众的合法性的庶民院。通儒院的领袖应该是个大学者。其议员候选人应该由学者提名并考察他们对儒家经典的知识和连续性的更多管理责任的政绩而选拔,类似于皇权时代选拔士大夫的科举制。国体院的领袖应该是孔子的直系后裔,其他议员应该是大圣人或君主的后裔以及中国主要宗教的代表。最后,庶民院的议员是公民投票选举产生或者行业团体的代表。”)

对其批判根据在于,如果立法者就像卢梭所谓,是一位至高无上的“外国人”的话,那么,一切立法以下的根据就会灰飞烟灭。因为,道德存在和承载的机制,必须是政治载体和法治运作。这样,在运作方面,三权分立的主要元素,就是立法独立。很可惜,儒家主义者所谓三制体系中,根本就没有立法作业,机构和理据呈托。

这是为什么?因为,儒家学说中之立法者,也许是政治实际,也许是宗教宣道,本无清楚厘定——所谓“传圣道者不北面,有圣德者无臣礼”,也不过是说宗教人士有着一种类似皇帝尊严的社会位置——至于他们是不是立法者,他们不知道,臣皇们也不知道。于是,儒家之孔孟本身,只是文本立法者,不是法治立法者。于是,呈现一种文本状态下的释义空间和诗意空间。要想具体解释孔孟文本,无异于解释某种诗词歌赋。

八,至于政治正当性和合法性诉说,西方哲学汗牛充栋,不一而足。那么,这种正当性来源区隔于中国之,主要分别何在?主要分别在于,西方人只是认同上帝的道德元素和意旨;他们对于人(人文文本——区隔于圣经),有一个批判主义存在——这个批判主义源头,乃是对于圣经本身的、宗教改革式的诠释和置疑(如,对三位一体说;如,对耶稣复活论……)。但是,更加重要的,是他们规定人类之中没有任何圣贤可以代替上帝。而国人对于孔孟之类、之圣贤的说法,导致中国人文化化上帝+孔孟之非先验主义虚妄。(这也是后来西方人胡塞尔,海德格尔和伽达默尔争论人文主义认识-实践论之由。)

九,至于民主程序课题的被歪曲和被简化,亦如其文,“民主在实践上也是有缺陷的。政治选择最终归结为选民的愿望和利益。这导致产生两个问题:第一,多数人的愿望不一定是道德的,它可能喜欢种族主义、帝国主义或者法西斯主义。第二,当民众的短期利益和人类的长期利益之间发生冲突时,正如全球变暖中表现出来的情况,民众的短期利益成为政治上的优先选择。结果,美国或者其他地方的民选政府几乎根本不可能推行限制能源消耗的政策,而这本来是有利于人类的长远利益和子孙后代的利益的。 ”

这个判断是错误的。美国民主阙如,在百年前,约翰.穆勒在其代议制政府一书中早有披露。其主要观点是,1,何以不施行直接选择——而要施行选举选举人之间接选举?

2,何以金钱选举成为选举之务,之要,之择?

3,全民普选,何以异化为政党选择而呈政党利益(如,美国两党选举)?

4,何以避免选举的多数意志,利益,倾向和少数之之区别,之保护?

5,美国最高法官,何以不选举产生,而取终身其治?

等等。以至于有人说美国影子政府“彼得伯格俱乐部”的存在如何关键……。

但是,蒋,贝所言之儒家王政,恐怕比之约翰.穆勒百多年前所忧,更加危险。因为,他们那个并无立法机构的所谓建制,致使执法成为虚妄——而无法无天(只有孔孟、圣贤之人之天),导致无法(立法,执法)之行政院(国务院)形同虚设的操作妄为——而无行政之治之王道,很容易回到以哲学王(柏拉图主义)为政教不分之极权主义之滥觞,之延续,之泛滥(其实就是毛主义)——而“局外人”、“立法者”“外国立法者”(如卢梭言)的出现,势必令人想起马列主义——加之,其人不人,天不天,地不地之“哲学王”机构(“通儒院”)的僭越和虚置,一切良心试验和政治试验,最终势必回到中国一百年以前之万物不明状态,万劫不复状态和人人反对人人状态(批孔——赞孔——都是人治,人道,人法——就是人赋人权——而非天赋人权),并重新跌入文明衰落和停滞乃至反动状态。所以,“儒家宪政”说和民主不适(中国)论,势呈双胎、畸形,完全是“蒙古大夫”之产物也!

《北京之春》


【附录】
OP-ED CONTRIBUTORS

A Confucian Constitution for China

By JIANG QING and DANIEL A. BELL
Published: July 10, 2012

Related News
ON Monday, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton gave a speech in Mongolia denouncing Asian governments that seek “to restrict people’s access to ideas and information, to imprison them for expressing their views, to usurp the rights of citizens to choose their leaders.” It was a swipe at China’s authoritarian political system. The view that China should become more democratic is widely held in the West. But framing the debate in terms of democracy versus authoritarianism overlooks better possibilities.
The political future of China is far likelier to be determined by the longstanding Confucian tradition of “humane authority” than by Western-style multiparty elections. After all, democracy is flawed as an ideal. Political legitimacy is based solely on the sovereignty of the people — more specifically, a government that grants power to democratically elected representatives. But there is no compelling reason for a government to have only one source of legitimacy.
Democracy is also flawed in practice. Political choices come down to the desires and interests of the electorate. This leads to two problems. First, the will of the majority may not be moral: it may favor racism, imperialism or fascism. Second, when there is a clash between the short-term interests of the populace and the long-term interests of mankind, as is the case with global warming, the people’s short-term interests become the political priority. As a result, democratically elected governments in America and elsewhere are finding it nearly impossible to implement policies that curb energy usage in the interests of humanity and of future generations.
In China, political Confucians defend an alternative approach: the Way of the Humane Authority. The question of political legitimacy is central to their constitutional thought. Legitimacy is not simply what people think of their rulers; it is the deciding factor in determining whether a ruler has the right to rule. And unlike Western-style democracy, there is more than one source of legitimacy.
According to the Gongyang Zhuan, a commentary on a Confucian classic, political power can be justified through three sources: the legitimacy of heaven (a sacred, transcendent sense of natural morality), the legitimacy of earth (wisdom from history and culture), and the legitimacy of the human (political obedience through popular will).
In ancient times, Humane Authority was implemented by early Chinese monarchs. But changes in historical circumstances now necessitate changes in the form of rule. Today, the will of the people must be given an institutional form that was lacking in the past, though it should be constrained and balanced by institutional arrangements reflecting the other two forms of legitimacy.
In modern China, Humane Authority should be exercised by a tricameral legislature: a House of Exemplary Persons that represents sacred legitimacy; a House of the Nation that represents historical and cultural legitimacy; and a House of the People that represents popular legitimacy.
The leader of the House of Exemplary Persons should be a great scholar. Candidates for membership should be nominated by scholars and examined on their knowledge of the Confucian classics and then assessed through trial periods of progressively greater administrative responsibilities — similar to the examination and recommendation systems used to select scholar-officials in the imperial past. The leader of the House of the Nation should be a direct descendant of Confucius; other members would be selected from descendants of great sages and rulers, along with representatives of China’s major religions. Finally, members of the House of the People should be elected either by popular vote or as heads of occupational groups.
This system would have checks and balances. Each house would deliberate in its own way and not interfere in the affairs of the others. To avoid political gridlock arising from conflicts among the three houses, a bill would be required to pass at least two houses to become law. To protect the primacy of sacred legitimacy in Confucian tradition the House of Exemplary Persons would have a final, exclusive veto, but its power would be constrained by that of the other two houses: for example, if they propose a bill restricting religious freedom, the People and the Nation could oppose it, stopping it from becoming law.
Instead of judging political progress simply by asking whether China is becoming more democratic, Humane Authority provides a more comprehensive and culturally sensitive way of judging its political progress.
Jiang Qing is the founder of the Yangming Confucian Academy in Guiyang, China. He is the author, and Daniel A. Bell is an editor, of the forthcoming book “A Confucian Constitutional Order: How China’s Ancient Past Can Shape Its Political Future.
A version of this op-ed appeared in print on July 11, 2012, on page A25 of the New York edition with the headline: A Confucian Constitution For China.






















没有评论:

发表评论

页面